An ontology of information objects, encodings and realizations, as a plugin to DOLCE-Ultralite (reusing mainly the dul:expresses and dul:realizes relations from it).
Several patterns are contained inside this ontology:
- encodings of information entities
- kinds of realizations (gestural motions, depictions, digital, multimedia, speech, etc.)
- combinatorial relations between information objects
- relations between formal expressions and generalized expressions (lexicalizations, formalizations)
- relations between formal expressions and their assignments in formal semantics
- relations between information objects and schemata (data structures, KOS, etc.)
- authorship
- kinds of linguistic objects
- copies, reproductions, etc.
- cultural combination of information objects (reuse, mixing, metaphorical blending)
1.7
In 1.7, the encodes object property has been modified in order to support any kind of information entity (purely social object or realization), and to give justice to computer science pragmatic equivalence between information objects that are fully encoded for computing, and the actual bits travelling in a machine or network, based on that encoding. The realizes property has been consequenctly declared as a subproperty of encodes.
Also removed redundant owl:someValuesFrom axioms
In 1.6, broadened range of hasRepresentationLanguage
In 1.5, some fixes added wrt to new plugins (Roles.owl, CollectionsLite.owl).
In 1.4, all elements have got English labels. Added the class LinguisticAct, useful to relate Agent(s) when use information objects to express meaning with some CommunicativeFunction (from the theory by Jakobson). Moreover, the relation between formal patterns and information patterns have been enriched. Some bugs fixed.
IOLite
Any piece of information expressing computational operations, objects, markup, etc.
Code
Codice
Language
A natural or artificial language, provided with an alphabet (or vocabulary) and combinatorial rules. In the case of natural languages, their components are 'temporary' and 'reconstructed' out of actual usage. For example, a grammar for a natural language has the status of a theory for that language, and alternative ones can exist (e.g. generative vs. construction grammars).
Another distinction, between the general (systemic) rules for a language, and the local (contextual) rules for e.g. a certain context, speaker, place, etc., can be made separately.
The most comprehensive classification of languages ha probably been made by Umberto Eco, based on the production modes of the 'signs' that are represented in a certain language. It uses several semiotic dimensions, and will be modeled in a forthcoming ontology.
Linguaggio
Linguistic theory
Teoria linguistica
Any theory describing the structure and/or production and understanding of a natural language or a set of natural languages, or a component of one or more natural languages.
Depiction
An information realization consisting of depicted images/signs of any sort (e.g. graffiti, drawings, inscriptions, pictures, sculptures, etc.), which are inscripted on a medium that lasts longer than the depicting act.
It also includes any early form of inscripted iconic expression, which can be considered as original bodily expressions.
Realizzazione visiva
Bodily motion
An information realization consisting of bodily movements.
Movimento corporeo
Painting
wn noun: Graphic art consisting of an artistic composition made by applying paints to a surface; "a small painting by Picasso"; "he bought the painting as an investment"; "his pictures hang in the Louvre"
Dipinto
An information realization that realizes heterogeneous information objects. Examples include audiovisual performances, web pages, etc.
Oggetto multimediale
Multimedia object
2
Database schema
Any conceptual, logical or physical schema for a database.
Schema di base di dati
Linguaggio formale
A formal language, created by some human, with a fixed grammar, and usually with an explicit formal semantics (i.e. any FormalExpression that is a wff or a valid element of a FormalLanguage has an interpretation wrt to formal entities such as sets, categories, etc.).
Formal language
Lexeme
Lessema
Lexical entries for dictionaries, lexica, etc. They are used to create reference forms of words.
Thesaurus
Tesauro
A collection of categories organized according to a specified syntax, typically used to create a controlled terminology in a domain. A useful rdfs encoding of a typical thesaurus syntax is the SKOS schema.
Grapheme
Grafema
A part of a word as it can be realized by Writing
A spoken information realization can be 'about' a grapheme (as in reading), but it does not 'realize' it. Only Phoneme(s) are realized by spoken information (Voicing).
BTW, since spoken realizations are a 'primary' code of communication, the difference between direct and indirect spoken realizations (reading) should be considered relevant.
A grapheme is not necessarily able to express a meaning (a dul:SocialObject), although it can in principle (e.g. 'a' in English).
Sculpture
wn noun: A three-dimensional work of plastic art
Scultura
Natural language
Linguaggio naturale
A natural language, evolved and used in a community across time.
Natural languages components are 'temporary' and 'reconstructed' out of actual usage. For example, a grammar for a (part of a) natural language has the status of a theory for that language, but alternative ones can exist (e.g. generative vs. construction grammars).
A composition of Phrase(s), assumed to express a state of affairs (here modelled as a dul:Situation). Graphically, a period is usually considered its boundary.
Sentence
Frase
Digital photo
Any resource that can be computed, e.g. a file, a piece of (implemented) software. This assumes an encoding allowing the computation (e.g. html+http protocol).
Digital resource
Risorsa digitale
Lemma polirematico
2
Polyrhematic unit
A LinguisticObject made up of more than one Word, but distinct from a Phrase, which is a higher syntactic unit.
Web page
Formal expression
Espressione formale
Any information object represented in a FormalLanguage, usually having a formal interpretation by a dul:FormalEntity, and used to formally represent any Entity
Morpheme
Morfema
A part of a word that can express a meaning, which is part of the meaning of the entire word.
1
Plastic art
wn noun: The arts of shaping or modeling; carving and sculpture
Opera plastica
Iconic language
A language made up of graphical elements. It can be natural, artificial, and even formal.
Linguaggio iconico
Speech
Conventional sounds realizing explicit communication. Speech is a primary code of communication (primary means that is an original body expression, especially if first learnt).
Discorso
Text
Testo
A LinguisticObject composed of at least one Sentence, and assumed to be realized in written form.
Iconic object
An information object represented in an IconicLanguage
Oggetto iconico
Writing
An information realization based on conventional symbols.
It is a secondary code of communication (secondary means that it is about an original bodily expression, i.e. a primary code). Therefore, we are not considering here early forms of iconic expression, which could be considered primary.
Realizzazione scritta
An information realization consisting of uttered sounds. In natural agents, it always co-occurs with bodily movements.
Voicing
Vocalizzazione
Statue
wn noun: A sculpture representing a human or animal
Statua
Gesture
Gesto
From WordNet: 'an item of factual information derived from measurement or research'
Datum
Dato
Word
A linguistic object consisting of a string (independently of its physical realization).
Its topological unity can change according to its physical realization: as a written realization, its boundaries are blank spaces, as a spoken realization, sometimes is silence, sometimes not, and higher order features intervene.
Grammatical notions, such as noun, verb, adjective, etc., are roles defined by a grammar, and words (or larger linguistic objects) can play those roles in a given language. E.g., the word 'share' can play both 'verb' and 'noun' roles in contemporary English, while the word 'come' can only play the 'verb' role in English, and the 'adverb' or 'conjunction' roles in Italian (but if we consider a word as only realized by phonemes, i.e. if we consider the oral realizations of 'come', there is no common word 'come' in the two languages).
Parola
Contract text
Testo di un contratto
The text of a contract
Drawing
wn noun: A representation of forms or objects on a surface by means of lines; "drawings of abstract forms"; "he did complicated pen-and-ink drawings like medieval miniatures"
Disegno
Sound
An information realization consisting of sound waves.
Phoneme
Fonema
A part of a word as it can be realized by Voicing
A written information realization can be 'about' a phoneme (as in the case of transcription systems), but it does not 'realize' it: only Grapheme(s) are realized by written information (Writing).
A phoneme is not necessarily able to express a meaning (any dul:SocialObject), although it can in principle (e.g. 'a' in English).
Linguistic object
An information object represented in a NaturalLanguage
Oggetto linguistico
Any linguistic function that classifies words according to a LinguisticTheory.
This class includes parts of speech, thematic roles, phrase structure components, verbal aspects, etc. e.g. Subject, Object, Instrument, Stative, etc.
Each linguistic function must be defined in a LinguisticTheory; e.g. a thematic role can be defined either in a generative grammar, or in construction-based theory.
Funzione linguistica
Linguistic function
1
Linguistic act
Atto linguistico
A communicative situation including linguistic objects, agents, and a set of contexts: physical (informational realizations), conceptual (social objects), and referential (entities).
A linguistic act has an associated CommunicativeFunction that it satisfies.
Funzione comunicativa
Communicative function
The functions, e.g. defined by Jakobson and by Buhler, which define types of linguistic acts. Jakobson's ones include referential, conative, expressive, phatic, metalinguistic, poetic. Each function has typical roles and tasks that must be played during a linguistic act that achieves the function.
Proposizione
Phrase
A composition of Word(s) that can be considered a higher syntactic unit than a Word, and dul:isComponentOf a Sentence
Lexicon
Lessico
A collection of lexical items (terms, entries, ...) that are witnessed to have a linguistic relevance.
Term
A word or multiword that is established in some terminology from a domain of discourse.
Termine
Knowledge organization system
Knowledge Organization Systems: thesauri, terminologies, classification schemes, subject hierarchies, etc.
Sistema di organizzazione della conoscenza
Graphic art
wn noun: The arts of drawing or painting or printmaking
Opera grafica
Struttura di dati
Data structure
Any data structure, including databases, schemas, lexica, knowledge organizations systems, etc.
has formal term
ha termine formale
The relation between an InformationObject and a FormalExpression (constant, formula, term, sentence, proposition, axiom, etc.) that it is supposed to be given formal interpretation to formalize the InformationObject.
Notice that FormalExpression(s) only are formal terms for InformationObject(s), not for Concept(s) or other for SocialObject(s). On their turn, information object can 'express' (see) SocialObject(s).
E.g., the predicate (FormalExpression) 'TijuanaMariachi' isFormalTermFor the Term 'the mariachis in Tijuana' (that expresses the Collection of all mariachis in Tijuana); the Term 'equivalence relation' (that expresses the Concept of 'two entities having the same properties') hasFormalTerm the '<=>' symbol.
ha come autore
has author
is original of
è l'originale di
has cultural grounding
ha sorgente culturale
has cultural mixing with
ha una fusione culturale con
Any relation between information entities, where the first one reuses (includes, transforms, reengineers, etc.) the second one.
is reproduced by
è riprodotto da
is digitally reproduced by
è digitalmente riprodotto da
reproduces
riproduce
Any relation between two information entities, with the first used as an alternative encoding of the second. This encoding can preserve all or part of the informational structure. For example, an XML encoding of a plain text file, a digital scanning of a physical paper document, a reproduction of a painting, etc.
The encoding can be so precise and close to the medium of realization, that distinguishing the maximally encoded object from its realization is superfluous (as in many cases of computer science information entities). For this reason, the relation holds for either dul:InformationObject(s) or dul:InformationRealization(s).
Since the relation holds for either dul:InformationObject(s) or dul:InformationRealization(s), dul:realizes is a subproperty of it.
è autore di
is author of
è rappresentato formalmente in
The relation between formal expressions, and anything that they are supposed to represent.
E.g., 'the predicate 'MariachiInTijuana' formallyRepresents the dul:Collection of all mariachis in Tijuana'; 'the equivalence relation '<=>' formallyRepresents the concept of two entities having the same properties', 'the constant 'John' formallyRepresents the dul:NaturalPerson John.
Notice that formal expressions are formally interpreted by instances of dul:FormalEntity
is formally represented in
is formally interpreted as
The relation between a FormalExpression, and an Entity (a FormalEntity in case of classes, relations, etc.) that it is supposed to be the reference of the symbol (FormalExpression) that the Entity is an intepretation of.
In other words, this property expresses the 'formal interpretation' function, by which a logician 'assigns' an Entity to a FormalExpression.
For each type of formal expressions defined in a logical language, an assignment assunption should be indicated, for example, owl:Class should be restricted to: isAssignmentOf allValuesFrom Class. In addition, differently from the general relation formallyRepresents, isAssignmentOf is functional (and its inverse is inverse functional), in order to encode the Tarskian correspondence assumption.
E.g., the Set of 'all mariachis in Tijuana' isAssignedTo the predicate (FormalExpression) 'TijuanaMariachi' (that isFormalTermFor a Term e.g. 'the mariachis in Tijuana').
è assegnazione di
è interpretata formalmente come
Any relation between two information entities, with the first used as an alternative encoding of the second. This encoding can preserve all or part of the informational structure. For example, an XML encoding of a plain text file, a digital scanning of a physical paper document, a reproduction of a painting, etc.
The encoding can be so precise and close to the medium of realization, that distinguishing the maximally encoded object from its realization is superfluous (as in many cases of computer science information entities). For this reason, the relation holds for either dul:InformationObject(s) or dul:InformationRealization(s).
Since the relation holds for either dul:InformationObject(s) or dul:InformationRealization(s), dul:realizes is a subproperty of it.
is representation language of
è il linguaggio di rappresentazione di
The relation between formal expressions, and anything that they are supposed to represent.
E.g., 'the predicate 'MariachiInTijuana' formallyRepresents the dul:Collection of all mariachis in Tijuana'; 'the equivalence relation '<=>' formallyRepresents the Concept of two entities having the same properties', 'the constant 'John' formallyRepresents the dul:NaturalPerson 'John'.
Notice that a FormalExpression isAssignmentOf (is formally interpreted by) instances of dul:FormalEntity.
formallyRepresents is a particular case of 'dul:isAbout', holding only for formal expressions.
Anyway, a formal expression that dul:expresses a dul:SocialObject is also possible, but treats formal expressions as any other kind of dul:InformationObject that express a 'social' or 'cognitive' semantics, not a formal one.
formally represents
rappresenta formalmente
A relation between linguistic objects and other information objects (including other linguistic objects).
For example, 'dog' can lexicalize a picture of a dog, a linguistic description of a dog, or the logical class: 'Dog'.
This relation is a subPropertyOf encodes .
In case of FormalExpression(s), it is not the inverse of isFormalTermFor: formal expressions can be said to 'be formal terms' for a LinguisticObject(s), while, independently, linguistic objects can be said to 'lexicalize' formal expressions. The difference is mainly pragmatic: one can take e.g. the word Dog, and decide to have a logical class 'Dog' for it. Someone else can see the logical class 'Dog', and decide to lexicalize it with the words dog, chien, cane, etc. While the relation seems similar, the pragmatic of using them is very different.
is lexicalized by
è lessicalizzato da
digitally reproduces
riproduce digitalmente
The relation between an InformationObject and a FormalExpression (constant, formula, term, sentence, proposition, axiom, etc.) that it is supposed to be given formal interpretation to formalize the InformationObject.
Notice that FormalExpression(s) only are formal terms for InformationObject(s), not for Concept(s) or for other SocialObject(s). On their turn, information object can 'express' (see) SocialObject(s).
E.g., the predicate (FormalExpression) 'TijuanaMariachi' isFormalTermFor the Term 'the mariachis in Tijuana' (that expresses the Collection of all mariachis in Tijuana); the Term 'equivalence relation' (that expresses the Concept of 'two entities having the same properties') hasFormalTerm the '<=>' symbol.
is formal term for
è termine formale per
interpreta formalmente {@it}
formally interprets {@en}
è assegnata a
The relation between a FormalExpression, and an Entity (a FormalEntity in case of classes, relations, etc.) that it is supposed to be the reference of the symbol (FormalExpression) that the Entity is an intepretation of.
In other words, this is the 'formal interpretation' function, by which a logician 'assigns' an Entity to a FormalExpression.
E.g., the Set of 'all mariachis in Tijuana' isAssignedTo the predicate (FormalExpression) 'TijuanaMariachi' (that isFormalTermFor a Term e.g. 'the mariachis in Tijuana').
has schema
A relation between social objects and schemata that organize them. For example, a Tag hasSchema a Folksonomy, a Lexeme hasSchema a Lexicon, etc.
ha schema
is copy of
è copia di
The original information realization of some copy. Differently from reproductions, copies are not planned to have notable differences from the original. Master copies, author-signed paintings, etc. are examples of originals.
metaphorically blends with
fusoMetaforicamenteCon
is cultural grounding for
è una sorgente culturale per
is schema of
è schema di
A relation between social objects and schemata that organize them. For example, a Tag hasSchema a Folksonomy, a Lexeme hasSchema a Lexicon, etc.
A relation between linguistic objects and other information objects (including other linguistic objects).
For example, 'dog' can lexicalize a picture of a dog, a linguistic description of a dog, or the logical class: 'Dog'.
This relation is a subPropertyOf encodes .
In case of FormalExpression(s), it is not the inverse of isFormalTermFor: formal expressions can be said to 'be formal terms' for a LinguisticObject(s), while, independently, linguistic objects can be said to 'lexicalize' formal expressions. The difference is mainly pragmatic: one can take e.g. the word Dog, and decide to have a logical class 'Dog' for it. Someone else can see the logical class 'Dog', and decide to lexicalize it with the words dog, chien, cane, etc. While the relation seems similar, the pragmatic of using them is very different.
lessicalizza
lexicalizes
has grounding
is grounding for
has representation language
ha linguaggio di rappresentazione
Any relation holding between two FormalExpression(s), e.g. a function over formal grammars, boolean operators, syntactic relations defined for the logical vocabulary of a formal language, etc.
Syntactic relations from logical languages have a correspondance to some formal relation.